This is a Summary of the key findings from across a set of three interconnected reports (Report 1: Methods and Approach; Report 2: BETR Prevention Continuum; Report 3: Cross-cutting Themes and Recommendations) which, combined, provide an evidence synthesis of the Modern Slavery and Human Rights Policy and Evidence Centre’s (PEC) funded research portfolio on child trafficking and exploitation from its Phase 1 (2020-24).
This research was carried out by Dr Anna Skeels, Faaiza Bashir from the Social Science Research Park (SPARK) at the University of Cardiff.
Key Findings
1. Collaborative and methodological approach
The PEC-funded research is notable for its extensive collaborations with UK universities and non-academic organisations. These partnerships enriched the research methodology, incorporating creative and survivor-centred approaches and highlighting ethical challenges inherent in studying children affected by trafficking. Methods such as participatory research and trauma-informed frameworks were used to capture children’s voices where possible, although challenges remain in safely involving children in research.
2. Scope and definitions
The PEC-funded research focuses predominantly on those under 18 but, in certain contexts, includes young adults up to 25, particularly those with SEND or in education. The studies cover UK-born and non-UK-born children, highlighting varying vulnerabilities based on immigration status, disabilities, and types of exploitation, with child criminal exploitation and sexual exploitation receiving the most attention. The synthesis emphasises the importance of flexible definitions in addressing child trafficking.
3. BETR prevention continuum
The report has applied the BETR prevention continuum as a guiding framework to structure findings on prevention efforts, spanning four stages: “Before exploitation occurs, Early-stage intervention, Treatment of harm, and Re-trafficking prevention.”
This framework also helps identify areas for improvement in preventive practices, with gaps in understanding areas such as re-trafficking, children going missing, deterrence and disruption, perpetrators, and multi-agency collaboration. The continuum also highlights the need for survivor recovery and support services as part of a broader preventive strategy.
The report emphasises that child trafficking prevention needs to be distinct from adult-focused approaches, as children’s outcomes, definitions of safety, and conceptualisations of recovery differ from those of adults.
4. Cross-cutting themes
Participation and representation
Evidence from the portfolio indicates a lack of participation of children at risk of exploitation before any harm occurs and at the early stages of exploitation, although guardianship support services for children and young people affected by human trafficking are demonstrated as participatory.
Children’s voices are often absent from debates on trafficking and children with lived experience are rarely consulted, which may reduce the relevance of existing policies and practices. The report underscores the need for child-centred research approaches that prioritise the perspectives of young people.
Trusted adult relationships
A common theme across the studies is the essential role of a “trusted adult” in the lives of children at risk of exploitation. The presence of a supportive, independent adult—often a guardian or advocate—enhances protective measures, as seen in guardianship services across Scotland, England, and Wales.
Cultural competence
Cultural factors significantly impact how children perceive their exploitation and how others identify and respond to these risks. Non-UK-born children’s experiences are particularly shaped by these factors, emphasising the need for culturally aware support services. Institutional biases and racial assumptions can delay intervention, especially for Black, Asian, and minority ethnic children, often resulting in an over-focus on criminality rather than vulnerability.
Mental health challenges
Mental health issues among at-risk children represent a considerable vulnerability factor, yet the barriers to accessing support are high. Children affected by trafficking, including those with SEND, face long waiting periods for mental health services. Having to navigate the immigration system exacerbates these difficulties. Trauma-informed mental health support is vital for recovery, but the findings show a gap in accessible mental health resources for young survivors.
Navigating complex systems
Children affected by modern slavery frequently interact with multiple statutory systems, such as social care, immigration, and criminal justice, which can sometimes increase the risks for children. The report highlights the importance of “literacy” around child trafficking among professionals, which can lead to missed opportunities for early intervention.
Going missing
Going missing is an important ‘red flag’ for the prevention of child trafficking: it can be an indicator of a child or young person being affected by trafficking, or re-trafficking, or can indicate a risk of exploitation before it happens. Children with SEND, unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and looked after children are particularly vulnerable to going missing, with the varied responses including inadequate or non-existent.
Transitions
The transition to adulthood or to adult services can put young survivors of modern slavery at higher risk of re-exploitation and present barriers to their further development and positive outcomes, especially for non-UK-born children without stable immigration status. Evidence shows that recovery and related support needs can continue well beyond the transition to adulthood at 18.
Family and carers
Children with varied family dynamics face different risks; some families provide a protective function, while others may heighten risk through neglect or pressure to contribute financially. Children with SEND are particularly vulnerable, with parents often advocating for their needs and protection in settings where formal support is lacking. Foster care and guardianship services also play critical roles, though there is a need for foster carers to receive training on recognising signs of exploitation.
Recommendations
This synthesis has proposed recommendations to guide future research and policy on child trafficking, focusing on conceptual frameworks, methodology, and practical applications.
Conceptual and theoretical
1. Support a continued, critical consideration of the BETR prevention continuum to help frame and inform future commissioned research on child trafficking.
2. Employ a more explicit child rights-informed framing of future calls and commissioned child trafficking research.
3. Require future commissioned research to reinforce a positive, holistic and survivor-informed definition of outcomes for children affected by human trafficking.
Methodological / Ethical:
4. Place a continued – and enhanced – emphasis on safe, survivor centred research and the employment of innovative and creative participatory approaches.
5. Commission an investigation into the potential for secure administrative data linkage and longitudinal (or other approaches to) research to reveal long-term outcomes for young people affected by modern slavery post exit from support services (including related to education, employment, health etc), a key gap in the evidence base.
6. Continue to have a focus on:
a. Responsive research funding
b. Co-creation of research
c. Encouraging multiple and diverse methods, including those enabling the participation of children.
d. A range of settings and spaces as the focus of research.
7. Require increased and structured content on the ethical processes and issues related to each funded piece of research at application and reporting stages, beyond the confirmation that ethical approval was sought and granted and that a trauma-informed approach was taken.
Empirical:
8. Consider commissioning research focused on other relevant ‘sites’ for the prevention of child trafficking including specific sector ‘deep dives’, or hyper-local studies.
9. Commission survivor-informed, solution-focused research on how systems, procedures and structures engaging children and young people affected by modern slavery might be navigated differently or transformed.
10. Support research that addresses an intersectionality gap, i.e., that challenges and cuts across the silos and stereotypes identified through funded research in Phase 1.
11. Address and explore other empirical gaps on child trafficking revealed by synthesising the child-focused research from Phase 1.
12. Enable a more explicit and strategic exploration of themes across child and adult-focused modern slavery research
13. Support research into the trusted adults which the existing evidence suggests is promising practice for what works to support children and young people.
